In multi-user operating systems it is important to be able to control access to information. This is usually done at the file and directory levels.
There are two broad categories of access controls applied to files and directories:
In this OPS102 course, we will be looking only at DACs.
Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, provide a simple model for maintaining file and directory permissions. There is a more advanced model available, called File Access Control Lists (File ACLs or FACLs - see below), but it is more complicated to manage, and experience has shown that the simpler model is more likely to be used.
There are three communities of users for each file:
These communitities are presented in this order, so remember the sequence!: User - Group - Other (u g o)
Note that each file has both an individual user and a group owner. The ls -l command shows the user and group owner in the third and fourth columns of output.
Each community has three permissions for each file which may be individually turned on or off:
Remember this sequence also!: Read - Write - eXecute (r w x)
When applied to directories, these permissions are interpreted differently:
If execute permission is enabled for a directory but read permission has not been enabled, the affected community cannot view a directory listing to determine filenames, but if they know the name of a file within that directory, they may still access it.
If read permission is enabled for a directory but execute permission has not been enabled, the affected community can view the names of files in a directory (but only the names, not permissions, file size, ownership, or any other information), but they will have no access to use the files in any way.
However, read and execute permission are almost always assigned to a directory together.
In order to access a file, a user must have execute permission on all of the directories from the root directory to the directory containing the file. For example, on the file /home/jdoe/ops102/practice/info.txt, a user must have execute permission on all four directories (home, jdoe, ops102, practice) to access the file.
Permissions may be viewed with the ls -l command (the ls command with the -l “long detailed listing” option). For example:
$ ls -l /etc/hosts -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 386 Nov 27 2022 /etc/hosts
Notice that the file's owner is “root”, and the file's group owner is also “root”.
The first character on this line is the file type (“-” meaning a regular file), and the next nine characters represent the three communities, each having three permissions. The permissions are written as a letter – “r”, “w”, or “x” – if the permission is enabled, or a dash “-” if the permission is disabled. Therefore, in the example above:
rw- the user who owns the file has read and write permission r-- the group that owns the file has read permission r-- others have read permission
Note that the user who owns the file is listed as root and the group that owns the file is listed as root – these are not the same! The user account and group happen to have the same name in this case.
To view the permisions on a directory, you may need to specify the -d option to the ls command, which causes it to display the specified directory instead of the contents of that directory. For example:
$ ls -l / # displays the contents of the root directory total 68 dr-xr-xr-x. 2 root root 4096 Jan 18 2023 afs lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 7 Jan 18 2023 bin -> usr/bin dr-xr-xr-x. 6 root root 4096 Sep 15 22:56 boot drwxr-xr-x. 23 root root 4860 Sep 26 10:41 dev drwxr-xr-x. 178 root root 12288 Sep 26 09:42 etc drwxr-xr-x. 5 root root 4096 May 30 14:27 home lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 7 Jan 18 2023 lib -> usr/lib lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 9 Jan 18 2023 lib64 -> usr/lib64 drwx------. 2 root root 16384 Apr 13 17:42 lost+found drwxr-xr-x. 2 root root 4096 Jan 18 2023 media drwxr-xr-x. 5 root root 4096 Jun 14 10:45 mnt drwxr-xr-x. 5 root root 4096 Sep 6 10:09 opt dr-xr-xr-x. 489 root root 0 Sep 26 06:26 proc dr-xr-x---. 10 root root 4096 Sep 25 05:31 root drwxr-xr-x. 56 root root 1480 Sep 26 10:28 run lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 8 Jan 18 2023 sbin -> usr/sbin drwxr-xr-x. 2 root root 4096 Jan 18 2023 srv dr-xr-xr-x. 13 root root 0 Sep 26 10:26 sys drwxrwxrwt. 25 root root 580 Sep 26 10:51 tmp drwxr-xr-x. 13 root root 4096 May 30 09:33 usr drwxr-xr-x. 21 root root 4096 May 30 12:46 var $ ls -l -d / # displays the root directory itself dr-xr-xr-x. 19 root root 4096 Sep 4 15:05 /
You can also view permissions as an octal number using the stat command - note the value marked “Access”:
$ stat /etc/hosts File: /etc/hosts Size: 386 Blocks: 8 IO Block: 4096 regular file Device: 253,0 Inode: 4194708 Links: 1 Access: (0644/-rw-r--r--) Uid: ( 0/ root) Gid: ( 0/ root) Context: system_u:object_r:net_conf_t:s0 Access: 2024-01-23 16:29:33.807860342 -0500 Modify: 2022-11-27 10:26:24.000000000 -0500 Change: 2023-05-30 03:00:51.739043061 -0400 Birth: 2023-05-30 03:00:51.738043061 -0400
The permissions on a file are also called the permission mode of the file, so the command to change the permissions is called chmod (“change mode”).
The chmod command can be used in either of two ways: with symbolic or numeric permissions.
In either case, the command accepts the mode as the first positional argument, and the filename(s) (or patterns) as the remaining positional arguments:
chmod mode filename …
Symbolic mode represents permissions as a list of one or more communities, represented by a letter:
u (user) g (group) o (other) a (all - a short form to specify ugo)
This is followed by an action symbol:
+ (add permissions) - (remove permissions) = (set permissions)
The difference between +/- and = is that +/- will add or remove the specified permissions while leaving other permissions unchanged, while = will explicitly set the permissions to exactly the value specified.
This is followed by zero or more of these letters, representing permissions:
r (read) w (write) x (execute - note that this is lowercase) X (execute if applied to a directory, or nothing if applied to a file -- note that this is UPPERCASE)
Therefore the symbolic notation g+rx instructs chmod to add read and execute permission to the group community, and a-w instructs chmod to remote write permission from all of the communities (user, group, and other).
Here is an example:
$ touch test001 # create a file for testing $ ls -l test001 # show the current permissions -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:20 test001 $ chmod g+w test001 # to group, add (+) write permission $ ls -l test001 -rw-rw-r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:20 test001 $ chmod o-r test001 # to other, remove (-) read permission $ ls -l test001 -rw-rw----. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:20 test001 $ chmod u=rw,go= test001 # set user to have only read and write, group and other to have nothing $ ls -l test001 -rw-------. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:20 test001
And another example using a directory:
$ mkdir apple # create a directory for testing $ touch apple/honeycrisp # create some files in that directory $ touch apple/gala $ touch apple/ambrosia $ ls -l -d apple # see the permissions on the directory drwxr-xr-x. 2 chris chris 100 Sep 26 11:26 apple $ ls -l apple # see the files total 0 -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:26 ambrosia -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:25 gala -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:25 honeycrisp $ chmod a=rx apple # set permission (for all) to read and execute only $ ls -l -d apple dr-xr-xr-x. 2 chris chris 100 Sep 26 11:26 apple $ ls -l apple # note that we can still see inside the directory total 0 -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:26 ambrosia -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:25 gala -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:25 honeycrisp $ touch apple/macintosh # we cannot create a file in the directory touch: cannot touch 'apple/macintosh': Permission denied $ mv apple/gala apple/fuji # we cannot rename a file mv: cannot move 'apple/gala' to 'apple/fuji': Permission denied $ rm apple/gala # we cannot remove a file rm: cannot remove 'apple/gala': Permission denied $ chmod a=r apple # set permission to read only $ ls -l -d apple dr--r--r--. 2 chris chris 100 Sep 26 11:26 apple $ ls -l apple # we can see the filenames (r) but not the details (x) ls: cannot access 'apple/ambrosia': Permission denied ls: cannot access 'apple/gala': Permission denied ls: cannot access 'apple/honeycrisp': Permission denied total 0 -????????? ? ? ? ? ? ambrosia -????????? ? ? ? ? ? gala -????????? ? ? ? ? ? honeycrisp $ cat apple/ambrosia # we cannot access any files in that directory (x) cat: apple/ambrosia: Permission denied $ chmod a=x apple # set permission to execute (passthrough) only $ ls -l -d apple d--x--x--x. 2 chris chris 100 Sep 26 11:26 apple $ ls -l apple # we cannot see the list of files in that directory ls: cannot open directory 'apple': Permission denied $ ls -l apple/gala # however, if we know the exact name of the file, we can view it -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:25 apple/gala
You can also specify a mode using a number. Each digit has a range of 0 to 7, so these are known as octal (base eight) numbers. An extra zero is often written in front of the number to indicate that the number is in octal.
When a numeric value is used to specify the permission mode, all of the permissions for all of the communities must be set at the same time. You cannot add or remove some permissions, or set permission for just some of the communities, as you can with symbolic mode.
The digits are written from left-to-right in the order of the communities (u g o), with each digit being the sum of the granted permission according to these values:
4 read 2 write 1 execute
Examples:
rwx would have a value of 7 (4+2+1)rw- would have a value of 6 (4+2)r– would have a value of 4 (4)Therefore these permissions are equivalent:
rwxrw-r-- 0764 rwxrwxrwx 0777 rw-r--r-- 0744 rwx--x--x 0711
Here are some examples of chmod commands with numeric modes:
$ touch example001 $ ls -l example001 -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:45 example001 $ chmod 0111 example001 $ ls -l example001 ---x--x--x. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:45 example001 $ chmod 0764 example001 $ ls -l example001 -rwxrw-r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:45 example001 $ chmod 0640 example001 $ ls -l example001 -rw-r-----. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:45 example001
It is sometimes useful to use the chmod -R option to recursively set all the permissions on a directory and all of its contents. However, it is quite common to need to set execute permissions on directories but not on files. You can indicate this to chmod using a capital X for the execute permission.
# Don't do this! It will set Execute permission on files and directories. chmod -R go+rx publicdir # Instead, do this: it will set Execute permission on directories only, and not on files # (Notice the capital X in the symbolic permissions) chmod -R go+rX publicdir
-v Verbose: show information about each file processed (whether changed or not) -c Changes: show information about each change made (no output for unchanged files)
There is a setting known as umask which controls the permissions assigned to new files and directories. The umask value is a numeric mode which represents the permissions which are not permitted on new files.
The actual permission which is given to new files is a combination of two values:
open, openat, or creat system calls), except for
For example, a umask value of 0022 represents the permissions —-w–w- (write permission for group and other). Therefore, any new files or directories will be created without these permissions. This is the default permission on Matrix.
The umask value can be viewed or set with the umask command.
For example, the touch command requests 0666 (rw-rw-rw-) permission on new files. Here is a demo of how the umask value can change the assigned permissions:
$ umask # view the current umask 0022 $ touch testfile0022 # umask of 0022 will deny write for group and other $ ls -l testfile0022 -rw-r--r--. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:54 testfile0022 $ umask 0000 # umask of 0000 will not deny any permissions $ touch testfile0000 $ ls -l testfile0000 -rw-rw-rw-. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:54 testfile0000 $ umask 0027 # umask of 0027 will deny group write, plus all permissions for other $ touch testfile0027 $ ls -l testfile0027 -rw-r-----. 1 chris chris 0 Sep 26 11:55 testfile0027
To ensure that no one else has any access to new files and directories that you create on Matrix (unless you change the permission mode of the file after it is created), set your umask to 0077: umask 0077
Note that the umask value is specific to the process that is currently running, and it inherited by child processes. That means that if you're using multiple shells (perhaps in multiple windows), each shell's umask value is specific to that shell, and changing it will not affect the other active shells. However, any command or program that you run from that shell will inherit the umask value. You can set the default umask value for all future bash sessions by placing a umask command into your ~/.bashrc file.
Warning: be extremely careful editing your ~/.bashrc file, since an error may prevent you from logging in to your Matrix account. Always stay logged in to Matrix on one terminal while using a second terminal to confirm that you are able to successfully log in to the system. If you are not able to login, fix the problem using the first terminal and then re-test.
(Note that this is an advanced topic - these permissions are not used on the majority of files).
There are three additional, “special” permissions:
jdoe executes the passwd command (which is owned by the root user and has the Set User ID permission enabled), the effective user ID is temporarily changed to root while that command is executing. This enables the passwd command to change the user's password in the /etc/shadow file, which they otherwise do not have access to./var/www/html/ is owned by the group website, then any file or directory created within /var/www/html/ will automatically be owned by the group website instead of the group of the person creating the file.root, the master system administrator), regardless of any other permissions that might be set. The system's temporary directoriers (/tmp and /var/tmp) have this turned on.
These permissions are represented in the ls -l output as modifications of the 'x' character:
When using symbolic modes with chmod, the permissions are requested as follows:
When using numeric modes with chmod, these special permissions are represented as an additional octal digit to the left of the three basic octal permission digits. The value of these special permissions is:
Examples:
$ cp /usr/bin/cp mycp # make a private copy of the 'cp' command $ ls -l mycp # view the original permissions -rwxr-xr-x. 1 chris chris 145488 Sep 26 12:21 mycp $ chmod u+s mycp # add SUID $ ls -l mycp # view the new permissions -rwsr-xr-x. 1 chris chris 145488 Sep 26 12:21 mycp $ cp /usr/bin/mv mymv # make a private copy of the 'mv' command $ ls -l mymv # view the original permissions -rwxr-xr-x. 1 chris chris 137280 Sep 26 12:21 mymv $ chmod 06755 mymv # turn on SUID and SGID and set permissions to rwxr-xr-x $ ls -l mymv # view the new permissions -rwsr-sr-x. 1 chris chris 137280 Sep 26 12:21 mymv $ ls -l -d /usr/bin/passwd /tmp # view some existing files with special permissions drwxrwxrwt. 26 root root 600 Sep 26 12:21 /tmp -rwsr-xr-x. 1 root root 32760 Jan 18 2023 /usr/bin/passwd
There are two ways to secure your account on Matrix:
1. If you do not want to share any of your files with other users, you can disable access to your home directory by turning off all permissions for the group and other communities. The command chmod go= ~ will set this. Since this turns off access permission to that directory, other users will not be able to access any of the files within your home directory, regardless of the permission on the individual file.
2. If you want to share access to some of your files with other users, turn on the appropriate permissions for group and/or other users, and use the umask to limit the permissions on new files and directories.
For example, you might:
chmod -r go= ~/*
~/public. Set the permission on this directory so that group and others can access it:mkdir ~/public chmod go=rx ~/public
~/public directory and set appropriate permissions:cp anyFilesYouWantToShare ~/public chmod go=r ~/public
~/.bashrc file to ensure that it is applied to all new bash shells that you start in the future):umask 0077
~/public directory through your home directory:chmod go=rx ~
Windows and Linux both offer File Access Control Lists (FACLs or ACLs) to provide fine-grained control of file access. ACLs allow individual file permissions to be granted or denied to individual users and groups. However, the management of ACLs can be a complicated subject, and even experienced users sometimes misconfigure ACLs!
Due to this complexity, we will not be covering ACLs in this introductory course.
However, on a Windows system, basic manipulation of ACLs can be performed using the Windows Explorer file manager. Select a file which is stored on an NTFS filesystem (most internal hard disks or solid state disks, but not external drives) and right-click on it to view the file's Properties. Select the Security tab on the dialog that is displayed to view the users for which ACLs have been created, and the basic permissions that have been allowed or denied for that user on the selected file. Note that the effective permission will be a combination of the permissions allowed/denied on the file as well as on the parent directories.